777 lines
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777 lines
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<ol class="chapter"><li class="expanded affix "><a href="introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="0_background_information.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Background information</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="1_futures_in_rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Futures in Rust</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="2_waker_context.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Waker and Context</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="3_generators_async_await.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Generators and async/await</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="4_pin.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Pin</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="6_future_example.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Implementing Futures</a></li><li class="expanded "><a href="8_finished_example.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Finished example (editable)</a></li><li class="expanded affix "><a href="conclusion.html">Conclusion and exercises</a></li></ol>
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<h1 class="menu-title">Futures Explained in 200 Lines of Rust</h1>
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<main>
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<h1><a class="header" href="#some-background-information" id="some-background-information">Some Background Information</a></h1>
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<p>Before we go into the details about Futures in Rust, let's take a quick look
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at the alternatives for handling concurrent programming in general and some
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pros and cons for each of them.</p>
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<p>While we do that we'll also explain some aspects when it comes to concurrency which
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will make it easier for us when we dive into Futures specifically.</p>
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<blockquote>
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<p>For fun, I've added a small snippet of runnable code with most of the examples.
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If you're like me, things get way more interesting then and maybe you'll see some
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things you haven't seen before along the way.</p>
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</blockquote>
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<h2><a class="header" href="#threads-provided-by-the-operating-system" id="threads-provided-by-the-operating-system">Threads provided by the operating system</a></h2>
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<p>Now, one way of accomplishing concurrent programming is letting the OS take care
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of everything for us. We do this by simply spawning a new OS thread for each
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task we want to accomplish and write code like we normally would.</p>
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<p>The runtime we use to handle concurrency for us is the operating system itself.</p>
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<p><strong>Advantages:</strong></p>
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<ul>
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<li>Simple</li>
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<li>Easy to use</li>
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<li>Switching between tasks is reasonably fast</li>
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<li>You get parallelism for free</li>
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</ul>
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<p><strong>Drawbacks:</strong></p>
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<ul>
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<li>OS level threads come with a rather large stack. If you have many tasks
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waiting simultaneously (like you would in a web-server under heavy load) you'll
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run out of memory pretty fast.</li>
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<li>There are a lot of syscalls involved. This can be pretty costly when the number
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of tasks is high.</li>
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<li>The OS has many things it needs to handle. It might not switch back to your
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thread as fast as you'd wish.</li>
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<li>Might not be an option on some systems</li>
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</ul>
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<p><strong>Using OS threads in Rust looks like this:</strong></p>
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<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">use std::thread;
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fn main() {
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println!("So we start the program here!");
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let t1 = thread::spawn(move || {
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thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(200));
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println!("We create tasks which gets run when they're finished!");
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});
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let t2 = thread::spawn(move || {
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thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(100));
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println!("We can even chain callbacks...");
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let t3 = thread::spawn(move || {
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thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(50));
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println!("...like this!");
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});
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t3.join().unwrap();
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});
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println!("While our tasks are executing we can do other stuff here.");
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t1.join().unwrap();
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t2.join().unwrap();
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}
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</code></pre></pre>
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<p>OS threads sure have some pretty big advantages. So why all this talk about
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"async" and concurrency in the first place?</p>
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<p>First, for computers to be <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficiency"><em>efficient</em></a> they need to multitask. Once you
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start to look under the covers (like <a href="https://os.phil-opp.com/async-await/">how an operating system works</a>)
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you'll see concurrency everywhere. It's very fundamental in everything we do.</p>
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<p>Second, we have the web. </p>
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<p>Web servers are all about I/O and handling small tasks
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(requests). When the number of small tasks is large it's not a good fit for OS
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threads as of today because of the memory they require and the overhead involved
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when creating new threads. </p>
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<p>This gets even more problematic when the load is variable which means the current number of tasks a
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program has at any point in time is unpredictable. That's why you'll see so many async web
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frameworks and database drivers today.</p>
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<p>However, for a huge number of problems, the standard OS threads will often be the
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right solution. So, just think twice about your problem before you reach for an
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async library.</p>
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<p>Now, let's look at some other options for multitasking. They all have in common
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that they implement a way to do multitasking by having a "userland"
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runtime.</p>
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<h2><a class="header" href="#green-threads" id="green-threads">Green threads</a></h2>
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<p>Green threads use the same mechanism as an OS does by creating a thread for
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each task, setting up a stack, saving the CPU's state, and jumping from one
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task(thread) to another by doing a "context switch".</p>
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<p>We yield control to the scheduler (which is a central part of the runtime in
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such a system) which then continues running a different task.</p>
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<p>Rust had green threads once, but they were removed before it hit 1.0. The state
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of execution is stored in each stack so in such a solution there would be no
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need for <code>async</code>, <code>await</code>, <code>Futures</code> or <code>Pin</code>. </p>
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<p><strong>The typical flow looks like this:</strong></p>
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<ol>
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<li>Run some non-blocking code.</li>
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<li>Make a blocking call to some external resource.</li>
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<li>CPU "jumps" to the "main" thread which schedules a different thread to run and
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"jumps" to that stack.</li>
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<li>Run some non-blocking code on the new thread until a new blocking call or the
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task is finished.</li>
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<li>CPU "jumps" back to the "main" thread, schedules a new thread which is ready
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to make progress, and "jumps" to that thread.</li>
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</ol>
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<p>These "jumps" are known as <strong>context switches</strong>. Your OS is doing it many times each
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second as you read this.</p>
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<p><strong>Advantages:</strong></p>
|
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<ol>
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<li>Simple to use. The code will look like it does when using OS threads.</li>
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<li>A "context switch" is reasonably fast.</li>
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<li>Each stack only gets a little memory to start with so you can have hundreds of
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thousands of green threads running.</li>
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<li>It's easy to incorporate <a href="https://cfsamson.gitbook.io/green-threads-explained-in-200-lines-of-rust/green-threads#preemptive-multitasking"><em>preemption</em></a>
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which puts a lot of control in the hands of the runtime implementors.</li>
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</ol>
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<p><strong>Drawbacks:</strong></p>
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<ol>
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<li>The stacks might need to grow. Solving this is not easy and will have a cost.</li>
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<li>You need to save all the CPU state on every switch.</li>
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<li>It's not a <em>zero cost abstraction</em> (Rust had green threads early on and this
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was one of the reasons they were removed).</li>
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<li>Complicated to implement correctly if you want to support many different
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platforms.</li>
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</ol>
|
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<p>A green threads example could look something like this:</p>
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<p>The example presented below is an adapted example from an earlier gitbook I
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|
wrote about green threads called <a href="https://cfsamson.gitbook.io/green-threads-explained-in-200-lines-of-rust/">Green Threads Explained in 200 lines of Rust.</a>
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|
If you want to know what's going on you'll find everything explained in detail
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|
in that book. The code below is wildly unsafe and it's just to show a real example.
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|
It's not in any way meant to showcase "best practice". Just so we're on
|
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the same page.</p>
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</blockquote>
|
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<p><em><strong>Press the expand icon in the top right corner to show the example code.</strong></em> </p>
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<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust edition2018"><span class="boring">#![feature(asm, naked_functions)]
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</span><span class="boring">use std::ptr;
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|
</span><span class="boring">
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|
</span><span class="boring">const DEFAULT_STACK_SIZE: usize = 1024 * 1024 * 2;
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</span><span class="boring">const MAX_THREADS: usize = 4;
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</span><span class="boring">static mut RUNTIME: usize = 0;
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|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">pub struct Runtime {
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|
</span><span class="boring"> threads: Vec<Thread>,
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|
</span><span class="boring"> current: usize,
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|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Debug)]
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|
</span><span class="boring">enum State {
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|
</span><span class="boring"> Available,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> Running,
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|
</span><span class="boring"> Ready,
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">struct Thread {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> id: usize,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> stack: Vec<u8>,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ctx: ThreadContext,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> state: State,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> task: Option<Box<dyn Fn()>>,
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[derive(Debug, Default)]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[repr(C)]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">struct ThreadContext {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> rsp: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> r15: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> r14: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> r13: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> r12: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> rbx: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> rbp: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> thread_ptr: u64,
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">impl Thread {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> fn new(id: usize) -> Self {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> Thread {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> id,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> stack: vec![0_u8; DEFAULT_STACK_SIZE],
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ctx: ThreadContext::default(),
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> state: State::Available,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> task: None,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">impl Runtime {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> pub fn new() -> Self {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let base_thread = Thread {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> id: 0,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> stack: vec![0_u8; DEFAULT_STACK_SIZE],
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ctx: ThreadContext::default(),
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> state: State::Running,
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> task: None,
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|
</span><span class="boring"> };
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let mut threads = vec![base_thread];
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> threads[0].ctx.thread_ptr = &threads[0] as *const Thread as u64;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let mut available_threads: Vec<Thread> = (1..MAX_THREADS).map(|i| Thread::new(i)).collect();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> threads.append(&mut available_threads);
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> Runtime {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> threads,
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|
</span><span class="boring"> current: 0,
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|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
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|
</span><span class="boring"> pub fn init(&self) {
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|
</span><span class="boring"> unsafe {
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|
</span><span class="boring"> let r_ptr: *const Runtime = self;
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|
</span><span class="boring"> RUNTIME = r_ptr as usize;
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|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> pub fn run(&mut self) -> ! {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> while self.t_yield() {}
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> std::process::exit(0);
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> fn t_return(&mut self) {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> if self.current != 0 {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> self.threads[self.current].state = State::Available;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> self.t_yield();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> fn t_yield(&mut self) -> bool {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let mut pos = self.current;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> while self.threads[pos].state != State::Ready {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> pos += 1;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> if pos == self.threads.len() {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> pos = 0;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> if pos == self.current {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> return false;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> if self.threads[self.current].state != State::Available {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> self.threads[self.current].state = State::Ready;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> self.threads[pos].state = State::Running;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let old_pos = self.current;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> self.current = pos;
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> unsafe {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> switch(&mut self.threads[old_pos].ctx, &self.threads[pos].ctx);
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> true
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> pub fn spawn<F: Fn() + 'static>(f: F){
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> unsafe {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let rt_ptr = RUNTIME as *mut Runtime;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let available = (*rt_ptr)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> .threads
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> .iter_mut()
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> .find(|t| t.state == State::Available)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> .expect("no available thread.");
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let size = available.stack.len();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let s_ptr = available.stack.as_mut_ptr();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> available.task = Some(Box::new(f));
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> available.ctx.thread_ptr = available as *const Thread as u64;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ptr::write(s_ptr.offset((size - 8) as isize) as *mut u64, guard as u64);
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ptr::write(s_ptr.offset((size - 16) as isize) as *mut u64, call as u64);
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> available.ctx.rsp = s_ptr.offset((size - 16) as isize) as u64;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> available.state = State::Ready;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn call(thread: u64) {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let thread = unsafe { &*(thread as *const Thread) };
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> if let Some(f) = &thread.task {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> f();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> }
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[naked]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn guard() {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> unsafe {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let rt_ptr = RUNTIME as *mut Runtime;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let rt = &mut *rt_ptr;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> println!("THREAD {} FINISHED.", rt.threads[rt.current].id);
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> rt.t_return();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> };
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">pub fn yield_thread() {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> unsafe {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> let rt_ptr = RUNTIME as *mut Runtime;
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> (*rt_ptr).t_yield();
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> };
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[naked]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[inline(never)]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">unsafe fn switch(old: *mut ThreadContext, new: *const ThreadContext) {
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> asm!("
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %rsp, 0x00($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %r15, 0x08($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %r14, 0x10($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %r13, 0x18($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %r12, 0x20($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %rbx, 0x28($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov %rbp, 0x30($0)
|
|
</span><span class="boring">
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x00($1), %rsp
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x08($1), %r15
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x10($1), %r14
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x18($1), %r13
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x20($1), %r12
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x28($1), %rbx
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x30($1), %rbp
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> mov 0x38($1), %rdi
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> ret
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> "
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> :
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> : "r"(old), "r"(new)
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> :
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> : "alignstack"
|
|
</span><span class="boring"> );
|
|
</span><span class="boring">}
|
|
</span><span class="boring">#[cfg(not(windows))]
|
|
</span>fn main() {
|
|
let mut runtime = Runtime::new();
|
|
runtime.init();
|
|
Runtime::spawn(|| {
|
|
println!("I haven't implemented a timer in this example.");
|
|
yield_thread();
|
|
println!("Finally, notice how the tasks are executed concurrently.");
|
|
});
|
|
Runtime::spawn(|| {
|
|
println!("But we can still nest tasks...");
|
|
Runtime::spawn(|| {
|
|
println!("...like this!");
|
|
})
|
|
});
|
|
runtime.run();
|
|
}
|
|
<span class="boring">#[cfg(windows)]
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() { }
|
|
</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
<p>Still hanging in there? Good. Don't get frustrated if the code above is
|
|
difficult to understand. If I hadn't written it myself I would probably feel
|
|
the same. You can always go back and read the book which explains it later.</p>
|
|
<h2><a class="header" href="#callback-based-approaches" id="callback-based-approaches">Callback based approaches</a></h2>
|
|
<p>You probably already know what we're going to talk about in the next paragraphs
|
|
from JavaScript which I assume most know. </p>
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<p>If your exposure to JavaScript callbacks has given you any sorts of PTSD earlier
|
|
in life, close your eyes now and scroll down for 2-3 seconds. You'll find a link
|
|
there that takes you to safety.</p>
|
|
</blockquote>
|
|
<p>The whole idea behind a callback based approach is to save a pointer to a set of
|
|
instructions we want to run later together with whatever state is needed. In Rust this
|
|
would be a <code>closure</code>. In the example below, we save this information in a <code>HashMap</code>
|
|
but it's not the only option.</p>
|
|
<p>The basic idea of <em>not</em> involving threads as a primary way to achieve concurrency
|
|
is the common denominator for the rest of the approaches. Including the one
|
|
Rust uses today which we'll soon get to.</p>
|
|
<p><strong>Advantages:</strong></p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Easy to implement in most languages</li>
|
|
<li>No context switching</li>
|
|
<li>Relatively low memory overhead (in most cases)</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p><strong>Drawbacks:</strong></p>
|
|
<ul>
|
|
<li>Since each task must save the state it needs for later, the memory usage will grow
|
|
linearly with the number of callbacks in a chain of computations.</li>
|
|
<li>Can be hard to reason about. Many people already know this as "callback hell".</li>
|
|
<li>It's a very different way of writing a program, and will require a substantial
|
|
rewrite to go from a "normal" program flow to one that uses a "callback based" flow.</li>
|
|
<li>Sharing state between tasks is a hard problem in Rust using this approach due
|
|
to its ownership model.</li>
|
|
</ul>
|
|
<p>An extremely simplified example of a how a callback based approach could look
|
|
like is:</p>
|
|
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">fn program_main() {
|
|
println!("So we start the program here!");
|
|
set_timeout(200, || {
|
|
println!("We create tasks with a callback that runs once the task finished!");
|
|
});
|
|
set_timeout(100, || {
|
|
println!("We can even chain sub-tasks...");
|
|
set_timeout(50, || {
|
|
println!("...like this!");
|
|
})
|
|
});
|
|
println!("While our tasks are executing we can do other stuff instead of waiting.");
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
fn main() {
|
|
RT.with(|rt| rt.run(program_main));
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
use std::sync::mpsc::{channel, Receiver, Sender};
|
|
use std::{cell::RefCell, collections::HashMap, thread};
|
|
|
|
thread_local! {
|
|
static RT: Runtime = Runtime::new();
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
struct Runtime {
|
|
callbacks: RefCell<HashMap<usize, Box<dyn FnOnce() -> ()>>>,
|
|
next_id: RefCell<usize>,
|
|
evt_sender: Sender<usize>,
|
|
evt_reciever: Receiver<usize>,
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
fn set_timeout(ms: u64, cb: impl FnOnce() + 'static) {
|
|
RT.with(|rt| {
|
|
let id = *rt.next_id.borrow();
|
|
*rt.next_id.borrow_mut() += 1;
|
|
rt.callbacks.borrow_mut().insert(id, Box::new(cb));
|
|
let evt_sender = rt.evt_sender.clone();
|
|
thread::spawn(move || {
|
|
thread::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_millis(ms));
|
|
evt_sender.send(id).unwrap();
|
|
});
|
|
});
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
impl Runtime {
|
|
fn new() -> Self {
|
|
let (evt_sender, evt_reciever) = channel();
|
|
Runtime {
|
|
callbacks: RefCell::new(HashMap::new()),
|
|
next_id: RefCell::new(1),
|
|
evt_sender,
|
|
evt_reciever,
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
fn run(&self, program: fn()) {
|
|
program();
|
|
for evt_id in &self.evt_reciever {
|
|
let cb = self.callbacks.borrow_mut().remove(&evt_id).unwrap();
|
|
cb();
|
|
if self.callbacks.borrow().is_empty() {
|
|
break;
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
</code></pre></pre>
|
|
<p>We're keeping this super simple, and you might wonder what's the difference
|
|
between this approach and the one using OS threads and passing in the callbacks
|
|
to the OS threads directly.</p>
|
|
<p>The difference is that the callbacks are run on the
|
|
same thread using this example. The OS threads we create are basically just used
|
|
as timers but could represent any kind of resource that we'll have to wait for.</p>
|
|
<h2><a class="header" href="#from-callbacks-to-promises" id="from-callbacks-to-promises">From callbacks to promises</a></h2>
|
|
<p>You might start to wonder by now, when are we going to talk about Futures?</p>
|
|
<p>Well, we're getting there. You see <code>promises</code>, <code>futures</code> and other names for
|
|
deferred computations are often used interchangeably. </p>
|
|
<p>There are formal differences between them, but we won't cover those
|
|
here. It's worth explaining <code>promises</code> a bit since they're widely known due to
|
|
their use in JavaScript. Promises also have a lot in common with Rust's Futures.</p>
|
|
<p>First of all, many languages have a concept of promises, but I'll use the one
|
|
from JavaScript in the examples below.</p>
|
|
<p>Promises are one way to deal with the complexity which comes with a callback
|
|
based approach.</p>
|
|
<p>Instead of:</p>
|
|
<pre><code class="language-js ignore">setTimer(200, () => {
|
|
setTimer(100, () => {
|
|
setTimer(50, () => {
|
|
console.log("I'm the last one");
|
|
});
|
|
});
|
|
});
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
<p>We can do this:</p>
|
|
<pre><code class="language-js ignore">function timer(ms) {
|
|
return new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, ms));
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
timer(200)
|
|
.then(() => return timer(100))
|
|
.then(() => return timer(50))
|
|
.then(() => console.log("I'm the last one"));
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
<p>The change is even more substantial under the hood. You see, promises return
|
|
a state machine which can be in one of three states: <code>pending</code>, <code>fulfilled</code> or
|
|
<code>rejected</code>. </p>
|
|
<p>When we call <code>timer(200)</code> in the sample above, we get back a promise in the state <code>pending</code>.</p>
|
|
<p>Since promises are re-written as state machines, they also enable an even better
|
|
syntax which allows us to write our last example like this:</p>
|
|
<pre><code class="language-js ignore">async function run() {
|
|
await timer(200);
|
|
await timer(100);
|
|
await timer(50);
|
|
console.log("I'm the last one");
|
|
}
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
<p>You can consider the <code>run</code> function as a <em>pausable</em> task consisting of several
|
|
sub-tasks. On each "await" point it yields control to the scheduler (in this
|
|
case it's the well-known JavaScript event loop). </p>
|
|
<p>Once one of the sub-tasks changes state to either <code>fulfilled</code> or <code>rejected</code>, the
|
|
task is scheduled to continue to the next step.</p>
|
|
<p>Syntactically, Rust's Futures 0.1 was a lot like the promises example above, and
|
|
Rust's Futures 0.3 is a lot like async/await in our last example.</p>
|
|
<p>Now this is also where the similarities between JavaScript promises and Rust's
|
|
Futures stop. The reason we go through all this is to get an introduction and
|
|
get into the right mindset for exploring Rust's Futures.</p>
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<p>To avoid confusion later on: There's one difference you should know. JavaScript
|
|
promises are <em>eagerly</em> evaluated. That means that once it's created, it starts
|
|
running a task. Rust's Futures on the other hand are <em>lazily</em> evaluated. They
|
|
need to be polled once before they do any work.</p>
|
|
</blockquote>
|
|
<br />
|
|
<div style="text-align: center; padding-top: 2em;">
|
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